CENTRAL BUREAU OF NARCOTICS
केंद्रीय नारकोटिक्स ब्यूरो
History of Opium Cultivation
अफीम की खेती का इतिहास
Extract from Department's in-house magazine on History of Opium Cultivation in the World and India
विश्व और भारत में अफीम की खेती के इतिहास पर विभाग की इन हाउस पत्रिका से उद्धरण
Opium Poppy
Opium, till today, is the best known source for relieving pain. The word 'opium' is derived from Greek word 'Opion'. In Arabia it was known as Afyun, in Chinese it is 'Yapien', in Persian it is known as 'Afium', in Sanskrit the ancient Indo-aryan language it is known as 'Aahi Phen' meaning snake venom. In the North-East part of India, it is referred to as 'Kani'.
The opium poppy (Papaver Somniferum L.) belonging to the family Papaveraceae, is an annual medicinal herb. It contains many alkaloids that are frequently used as an analgesic, anti-tussive and anti spasmodic in modern medicine. Besides, it is also grown as a source of edible seed and seed oil.
Opium Cultivation in India
India is the only country authorised by the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) to produce gum opium. Eleven (11) other countries, i.e, Australia, Austria, France, China, Hungary, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovenia, Spain Turkey and Czech Republic cultivate opium poppy, but they do not extract gum. They cut the bulb with 8-inch of the stalk for processing in its entirety. This method is known as Concentrate of Poppy Straw process (CPS).
Opium poppy has been cultivated in India since the 10th century. The 'Dhanvanatari Nighantu' an ancient Indian medical treatise of the 10th century lists opium as a remedy for a variety of ailments. In the early part of 16th century, opium was cultivated in India as a federal monopoly during the Moghul period. The 'Ain-e-Akbari', a historical record of the times and period of Moghul Emperor - Akbar (1556 to 1605AD) states that opium was cultivated in all the provinces of North India scattered over an area of more than one million sq. km. After the decline of Moghuls, the Britishers controlled opium production from year 1773. After independence the Indian Government checks and monitors its production and usage.
In India, opium poppy involves lancing and collection of latex from the incised capsule. It is laborious and skilled job requiring considerable manpower to accomplish the task in a short time span. The capsule is the most important organ of the plant as it provides raw opium - a milky exudate. It contains about 70% of the total morphine synthesised by the plant. The terminal capsule is, in general, richer in morphine content than the lateral ones. The lancing is the longitudinal or circumferencial cut/incison by an instrument, of the capsule at appropriate stage. The instrument comprises of 3 to 6 sharp blades of steel or iron affixed to a holder of sufficient length, or all tied together, each spaced a few millimetre.
The lancing operation is performed by skilled workers in the afternoon, so that a crust is formed on the surface of freshly exudated latex, due to the hot sun. Starting from the top, the workers move backwards to the base, in order to escape contact with exuding latex and to keep the incision facing the sun. While lancing the appropriate stage is identified by touch, a skill acquired by years of experience; the depth of incision is also an accomplished, precise art. By next early morning, the latex semi-solidifies, and is collected by scraping with a trowel.
Diseases affecting the Opium Plant
Opium poppy crop is susceptible to a number of diseases which affect the opium yield, most of which can be classified as fungal diseases. The other diseases caused by bacteria, virus and those associated with nutritional deficiencies. During the crop cutting experiment in 1993-94 in Uttar Pradesh one poppy crop was affected by downy mildew and the opium yield stopped after the second lancing. A description of the diseases is summarised below.
a) Fungal diseases
Downy Mildew - is one of the most serious and wide spread diseases of opium poppy. It causes hypertrophy and curvature of the stem and flower stolks. The infection spread upwards from the lower leaves. The entire leave surface is covered by brown powder. The stem, branches and even capsules are also attacked resulting in premature death of the plants. In India, the disease appears annually on the crop from seedling stage to maturity in opium poppy growing areas of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The formation of capsules is adversely affected due to infection. Consequently, opium yield is significantly reduced.
Powdery Mildew (Erysiphae Polygon) is another minor fungal disease, however, it caused severe damage to opium crop in Rajasthan in 1972. It is general noticed at later stage of growth of plant and is characterized by white powder on leaves and capsules. Field sanitation is important to control this disease.
b) Seed Borne disease
There are a few seed borne disease. It attacks the capsules and seeds only. The infection causes serious reduction in germination and seedlings decay. Some of them are:
Leaf Blight - The symptoms of the disease appear defused yellow spots, followed premature drying of infected leaves. During the course of parthogenesis, toxins are released by the parasites enabling it to assimilate the requisite nutrient. This disease is favoured by high temperature and heavy rainfall.
Leaf Spots - This disease is characterised by chlorotic areas on the leaf, often accompanied by curling. However, all the leaf spot diseases observed till now on this crop were of minor importance, though there is a distinct correlation between leaf spot infection and decline in morphine, codeine and thebaine content of the poppy plant.
Capsule Infection - This disease causes large velvety black spots to appear on the green capsule. It reduces the morphine, codeine and thebaine contents in opium poppy capsule. Capsule rot of opium poppy caused by a particular fungus entailing in severe damage is prevalent in Rajasthan. A severe capsule rot caused by another fungus was also observed in opium poppy crop grown at Lucknow.
Wilt & Root Rot (Fusarium Semitectum) - This disease occurs during the advanced stage of growth, causing rapid wilt and desiccation of leaves. The infection originates at the stem base and is accompanied by damping of roots. Black necrotic leasions develop on the cortex of the stem. The symptoms of the disease are characterised by withering and drying of the leaves, early maturity and low opium yield. This disease can be controlled by removing infected plants and by spraying of recommended chemicals of appropriate doses.
c) Diseases caused by bacteria
Bacterial diseases cause considerable damage to the crop. The symptoms are systematic in nature. One such bacteria gains its entry to the host through stomata and waterpores. In later stages it penetrates the vascular system and multiplies. The seeds from infected plants are discoloured and malformed. Another bacteria attacks all organs of opium poppy plant, the general characteristics of disease being brown to black brown spots on poppy seeds.
d) Diseases caused by viruses
Several viral diseases cause extensive damage to opium poppy. Cabbage ring spot virus was observed to be capable of infecting opium poppy. The infection rapidly becomes systemic and causes yellowing of plants and elongation of stem. Opium poppy is also susceptible to beat yellow virus. The symptoms appear as irregular chlorotic band along the veins which spread very fast all over the interveinal areas, leaving green strips along the veins. Infected plants were found to be stunted. The virus is transmitted mechanically from poppy to beans and from naturally infected beans to poppy. A mosaic disease of opium poppy was observed in India. The disease caused stunting vein banding and deformed capsule formation. The virus is readily transmitted from the sap. The disease was also found to be transmitted by aphids.
e) Diseases associated with nutritional deficiencies
Boron deficiencies in poppy plants result in floral and capsule malformation, seed necrosis and in severe cases, inhibition of growth in early stages. The symptoms cause stunting, dark purple or brown discoloration, distortion and crinkling of leaves accompanied by partial yellowing or blackening of veins. The symptoms of heart rot were associated with rotting of leaves, discoloration and decay of plants.
f) Insect - pests
The opium poppy is attacked by number of insect pests associated with root damage (Root Weevil), associated with leaf-stem damage (Aphids), associated with floral damage (Thrips and Sawfly), associated with capsule damage (Head gall fly, Capsule weevil and Capsule borer). In sum, the weather conditions, plant diseases, and soil composition all have a bearing on opium gum yield.
Licit Cultivation of Opium Poppy
Licit cultivation is carried out in India in selected tracts notified by the Central Government annually in the States of Madhya Preadesh, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. Licences are issued by the CBN to eligible cultivators in the above three States as per the General Conditions relating to Grant of Licence framed by the Central Government.
The most important criteria for eligibility is the tendering of certain Minimum Qualifying Yield (MQY) per hectare as fixed by the Central Government annually for the particular crop year. Cultivators who tender the said MQY and fulfill other conditions of the licence prescribed in the General Conditions are eligible for issue of licence.
Licences are issued annually for a crop year which commences from 1st October and ends on 30th September of the following year. CBN issues licences to eligible cultivators for licit cultivation in these notified tracts in October every year. The cultivators are required to tender their entire produce to the Government. For this purpose, the Central Government announces a Minimum Qualifying Yield of certain number of kilogrammes of opium per hectare.
| S. No. | Activity | Period |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | Finalization of the General Conditions for Grant of License for cultivation of Opium Poppy by the Central Government | September-October |
| 2. | Licensing of farmers and settlement of previous seasons accounts on receipt of General Condition for Grant of License | October |
| 3. | Measurement and test measurement of licensed fields | 3rd Week of December to the end of January |
| 4. | Lancing of opium poppy bulbs for collection of opium gum | Commences generally in February |
| 5. | Checks are conducted regarding the opium produce tendered by the Cultivators | February/ March |
| 6. | Field analysis, weighment, and procurement of opium | Late March/ April |
| 7. | The collected opium is sent to the two Opium factories at Ghazipur and Neemuch for final analysis, drying and processing | Late March/ April |
In India opium poppy cultivation is prohibited, under Section 8 of NDPS Act, 1985, except under a license issued by the Central Bureau of Narcotics under Rule 8 of NDPS Rules, 1985. At present, the licit opium poppy cultivation is permitted by the Govt. of India in Selected Tracts in three traditionally opium growing States namely Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. As a signatory to the United Nations Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 and as a licit producer of opium, India is required to adhere to the regulations under the said convention.
Licences to cultivators to cultivate opium poppy are issued in terms of General Conditions relating to grant of licence notified by the Central Government. The licence for cultivation of opium poppy is granted by the District Opium Officer on receipt of a payment of fee of Rs.25/- only. Normally, the Settlement Operation is held in the month of October-November every year.
The Distt. Opium Officer also appoints a Lambardar on such terms and conditions as have been specified by the Narcotics Commissioner, from a panel of five highest yielding cultivators in a village. A cultivator wise Joint Licence for the village is also issued to him. During the crop year 2013 (i.e. crop year 2013-14), licenses have been issued to those cultivators who had tendered an average yield of not less than 54 Kgs/hectare in MP and Rajasthan and 52 kgs/hectare in UP during the crop year 2012-13.
From the end of December of each year, the CBN officers start exercising statutory control. They measure each and every field to check excess cultivation than the licensed area. This exercise is known as Measurement and is conducted by Sub-Inspector with the help of one Sepoy. The condonable limit in respect of excess in cultivated area shall not exceed 5% of the licensed area. In this connection, the measuring officer record in his field book, joint license and miniature license the details of the excess cultivation. All such cases of measured are exceeding 5% condonable limit are reported immediately to District Opium Officer of the Division and the concerned unit Deputy Narcotics Commissioner. The Deputy Narcotics Commissioner orders re-measurement of all such excess cultivation cases by deputing a gazetted officer and a 'Panchnama' in all such cases is drawn. In case the test-measured area exceeds 5% of the licensed area, action under NDPS Act, 1985 is initiated against such cultivator by the unit Deputy Narcotics Commissioner.
Towards the end of measurement operation a percentage of these fields is taken up for Test Measurement to detect any discrepancies.
Opium crop may suffer some damage due to natural calamity, rains, hailstorm, plant diseases, etc. Such damage occurs prior to lancing the capsules and post lancing. To give relief to those cultivators whose opium crop had been damaged due to natural calamities, they are allowed to get their unlanced damaged crop uprooted under departmental supervision. A cultivator can get his damaged crop uprooted before lancing has commenced provided the area to be uprooted is not less than 10% of the plot, subject to the minimum of one Are (100 Ares = 1 hectare). No uprooting is permitted after lancing has commenced in a particular plot. Partial uprooting is permitted but not in patches. For each partial and full uprooting panchnama are to be drawn and entry made in the joint as well as individual license.
In the month of February-March, the opium capsule is ready for lancing or extraction of opium by incision of opium capsule. The latex that oozes out of the capsule is collected by the cultivator on daily basis and the weight of such opium is recorded in a register called preliminary weighment register (PWR) maintained by the village Lambardar. CBN staff periodically checks the entries in PWR against the physical stock with the cultivator and in case of any discrepancy, action against the cultivator is taken. The variation between the quantity of opium produced by the cultivator indicated in the Lambardar's record and as found by the proper officer during his check, shall be inquired into by the proper officer in order to ascertain the liability of the cultivator for punishment under Section 19 of the NDPS Act, 1985.
By the end of March, the collection of opium from the plant is almost complete. The opium cultivator is required by law to produce whole opium of the land cultivated with opium poppy to the Distt. Opium Officer. At this time, CBN sets up procurement centers (also known as Weighment Centres) for the collection of this opium. The operation is known as Weighment. Weighment Centres are normally set up within the vicinity of the opium growing villages.
When the opium is tendered, two very small samples are taken for (i) Hot Air Oven testing; (ii) For testing the presence of sugar, starch & gum, etc. The Oven test method basically comprises of drawal of a very small sample from the opium produce of each cultivator and heating of the sample in an oven to evaporate the moisture.
After examination and oven testing, the opium is classified by the Distt. Opium Officer in different grades as per the consistence of opium and the class is announced publicly. The different classes of opium are indicated in the table given below. After weighing the class-wise opium of concerned cultivators, the quantity of opium tendered by the cultivator is converted into quantity at standard consistence i.e. 70ºC and 90% payment to the cultivators is made at the spot itself. The good opium is then sent to the Govt. Opium Factory where it is again tested for its consistence, quality, presence of impurities and adulterants by the chemical staff. On the basis of this final test, the final classification of opium is determined and final payment due to a cultivator is calculated. Accordingly, either the balance payment is made to the cultivator or in case of down-gradation the excess amount is recovered from cultivators.
The opium is classified by the Distt. Opium Officer as per the consistence of the opium and the different class of the opium is as under:
| S. No. | Distinctive Mark | Degree of consistence included in each class |
|---|---|---|
| 1. | XXX | 79, 80, 81 |
| 2. | XX | 76, 77, 78 |
| 3. | X | 73, 74, 75 |
| 4. | I | 70, 71, 72 |
| 5. | II | 67, 68, 69 |
| 6. | III | 64, 65, 66 |
| 7. | IV | 61, 62, 63 |
| 8. | V | 58, 59, 60 |
| 9. | Water Mixed-I (WM-I) | 55, 56, 57 |
| 10. | Water Mixed-II (WM-II) | 52, 53, 54 |
| 11. | Water Mixed-III (WM-III) | 49, 50, 51 |
| 12. | Water Mixed-IV (WM-IV) | 46, 47, 48 |
| 13. | Suspect | 45 and below |
50 grams (approx.) sample of opium is drawn from opium produce of each cultivator at Weighment Centre and after having it properly sealed in his presence, it is sent to the Govt. Opium Factory for carrying out further test in the event of any dispute.
Where the cultivator is dis-satisfied with the classification of opium done by the Distt. Opium Officer he may have it forwarded to the Govt. Opium Factory separately, after having it properly sealed in his presence and the presence of the concerned Lambardar.
When opium delivered by a cultivator to the Distt. Opium Officer is suspected of being adulterated with any foreign substance, it is forwarded to the Govt. Opium Factory separately after having it properly sealed in the presence of the cultivator and the concerned Lambardar.
The sealed container of opium so received in the factory is opened and sample for test is drawn thereof in the presence of the cultivator, if he so desires, to whom, a notice intimating the date and time in this behalf is sent well in advance.Opium of each cultivator is dispatched to opium factory separately in the plastic containers of 20 kgs or 35 kgs capacity as the case may be.
The opium so procured is sent to the Government Opium and Alkaloid Factories situated at Neemuch and Ghazipur. These factories are under the independent control of the Chief Controller of Factories, whose headquarters at New Delhi. A part of such opium is converted to Alkaloids for supply to manufacturers of medicines (about 150-200 tons). A large quantity of raw opium is however exported out of India for medicinal purposes.
The main importing countries are USA, Japan, Hungary, UK, France, Thailand.
Minimum Qualifying Yield
(A) Gum-Opium Based Cultivation
| MQYs/ MQY-M (Kg./Hect.) | Average Yield Opium/Morphine(KG Per Hect.) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Year | MP & Rajasthan | UP | Madhya Pradesh | Rajasthan | UP | All India |
| 1994-95 | 43 | 43 | 49.470 | 44.790 | 35.462 | 46.974 |
| 1995-96 | 46 | 46 | 48.445 | 48.247 | 21.023 | 47.652 |
| 1996-97 | 48 | 40 | 52.490 | 53.500 | 31.840 | 51.710 |
| 1997-98 | 48 | 40 | 26.290 | 41.690 | 32.140 | 33.140 |
| 1998-99 | 30 | 30 | 46.130 | 49.220 | 46.140 | 47.400 |
| 1999-2000 | 42 | 42 | 56.510 | 55.860 | 44.290 | 53.140 |
| 2000-01 | 50 | 42 | 57.440 | 58.890 | 45.370 | 55.020 |
| 2001-02 | 52 | 44 | 59.320 | 59.730 | 39.300 | 57.190 |
| 2002-03 | 52 | 45 | 55.060 | 57.910 | 39.430 | 55.520 |
| 2003-04 | 52 | 46 | 59.430 | 61.730 | 40.660 | 58.950 |
| 2004-05 | 54 | 48 | 60.370 | 56.450 | 42.22 | 58.340 |
| 2005-06 | 54 | 48 | 64.460 | 62.440 | 41.200 | 63.360 |
| 2006-07 | 56 | 49 | 62.870 | 57.540 | 17.250 | 60.380 |
| 2007-08 | 56 | 49 | 67.730 | 64.590 | 48.800 | 66.410 |
| 2008-09 | 56 | 49 | 58.530 | 60.310 | 40.400 | 59.180 |
| 2009-10 | 53 | 46 | 61.770 | 62.790 | 42.930 | 62.180 |
| 2010-11 | 56 | 49 | 64.330 | 62.430 | 43.610 | 63.280 |
| 2011-12 | 56 | 52 | 64.670 | 66.960 | 35.480 | 65.660 |
| 2012-13 | 56 | 52 | 64.280 | 66.550 | 52.670 | 65.060 |
| 2013-14 | 57 | 52 | 57.620 | 63.270 | 59.630 | 60.530 |
| 2014-15 | 51 | 52 | 61.667 | 61.860 | 63.414 | 61.769 |
| 2015-16 | 58 | 52 | 41.25 | 58.92 | 58.52 | 56.50 |
| 2016-17 | 49 | 47 | 64.380 | 64.220 | 45.210 | 64.280 |
| 2017-18 | 56 | 52 | 59.080 | 60.070 | 51.340 | 59.480 |
| 2018-19* | 52/4.9 | 52 | 66.337/4.922 | 67.034/5.162 | 45.145/4.524 | 66.262/5.030 |
| 2019-20 | -/4.0 | - | 66.183/5.127 | 68.306/5.541 | 35.720/5.688 | 67.175/5.337 |
| 2020-21 | -/4.2 | - | 60.385/4.951 | 66.592/5.563 | 48.984/4.363 | 63.362/5.326 |
| 2021-22 | 4.2 | - | 60.617/5.691 | 64.846/6.069 | 51.831/4.956 | 62.725/5.881 |
| 2022-23 | 4.2 | - | 60.838/5.070 | 63.415/5.338 | 52.710/5.176 | 61.948/5.205 |
| 2023-24 | 4.2 | - | 64.002/5.276 | 65.987/5.687 | 51.653/5.016 | 64.975/5.488 |
| 2024-25 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
(B) CPS Based Cultivation
| Year | MQY of Unlanced Poppy (Kgs./hect.) | Average Yield of Unlanced Poppy straw (kg/hect.) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Madhya Pradesh | Rajasthan | UP | All India | ||
| 2021-22 | NA | 898.913 | 767.954 | 600.746 | 845.413 |
| 2022-23 | NA | 697.876 | 624.481 | 541.913 | 654.283 |
| 2023-24 | NA | 707.436 | 675.250 | 604.867 | 682.689 |
| 2024-25 | 675 | NA | NA | NA | NA |
Cost of Opium
Payable to the Opium Cultivators for the Crop Year 2014-15| Yield Per Hectare | Price (In Rs.) |
|---|---|
| Upto 44 Kgs | 870 |
| Above 44 Kgs. and up to 52 kgs | 1000 |
| Above 52 kgs. and up to 56 kgs | 1275 |
| Above 56 kgs. and up to 60 kgs | 1390 |
| Above 60 kgs. and up to 65 kgs | 1740 |
| Above 65 kgs. and up to 70 kgs | 1875 |
| Above 70 kgs. and up to 75 kgs | 2050 |
| Above 75 kgs. and up to 80 kgs | 2250 |
| Above 80 kgs. and up to 85 kgs | 2500 |
| Above 85 kgs. and up to 90 kgs | 3000 |
| Above 90 kgs | 3500 |
Number of Cultivators & Area
Under cultivation in the past years| Crop Year | No. of cultivators licensed | Area licensed in hectares | Area harvested in hectares | Opium production in tons at 70 deg consistency | Average yield Kgs per hectare at 70 deg Consistency |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1994-95 | 104215 | 25216 | 22798 | 1070 | 46.974 |
| 1995-96 | 78670 | 26437 | 22593 | 1077 | 47.652 |
| 1996-97 | 76130 | 29799 | 24591 | 1271 | 51.710 |
| 1997-98 | 92292 | 30714 | 10098 | 335 | 33.140 |
| 1998-99 | 156071 | 33459 | 29163 | 1383 | 47.400 |
| 1999-2000 | 159884 | 35270 | 32085 | 1705 | 53.140 |
| 2000-01 | 133408 | 26683 | 18086 | 995 | 55.020 |
| 2001-02 | 114486 | 22847 | 18447 | 1055 | 57.190 |
| 2002-03 | 102042 | 20410 | 12320 | 684 | 55.520 |
| 2003-04 | 105697 | 21141 | 18591 | 1096 | 58.950 |
| 2004-05 | 87670 | 8770 | 7833 | 457 | 58.340 |
| 2005-06 | 72478 | 7252 | 6976 | 442 | 63.360 |
| 2006-07 | 62658 | 6269 | 5913 | 357 | 60.380 |
| 2007-08 | 46775 | 4680 | 2653 | 176 | 66.410 |
| 2008-09 | 44821 | 11020 | 8853 | 524 | 59.180 |
| 2009-10 | 60787 | 23425 | 12237 | 761 | 62.180 |
| 2010-11 | 53775 | 24541 | 16518 | 1045 | 63.280 |
| 2011-12 | 48863 | 23591 | 12092 | 794 | 65.660 |
| 2012-13 | 46821 | 5859 | 5619 | 371 | 65.060 |
| 2013-14 | 44350 | 5893 | 5329 | 318 | 60.530 |
| 2014-15 | 38467 | 6170 | 5423 | 335 | 61.769 |
| 2015-16 | 37514 | 6983 | 557 | 30 | 53.897 |
| 2016-17 | 60747 | 10284 | 8721 | 560 | 64.280 |
| 2017-18 | 57373 | 5740 | 4710 | 280 | 59.480 |
| 2018-19* | 69455 | 6949 | 6107 | 401 | 66.481 |
